Amphibious Intruders
The global trade of goods has played a crucial role in fostering economic growth and prosperity. Within this realm, horticultural trade stands out as a significant contributor. The exchange of plants and related materials has facilitated the spread of various plant species across the world. However, this interconnectedness has also resulted in the unintended transportation of animals, including invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians.
In The Bahamas, the number of nonnative amphibian species now surpasses that of native ones. Among the established anurans in The Bahamas are the Eastern Narrow-mouth Toad, Pig Frog, Cane Toad, Southern Leopard Frog, Squirrel Tree Frog, and, more recently, the North American Green Treefrog. It is worth noting that, as of now, most of these animals are not classified as invasive, primarily because comprehensive assessments of their populations are yet to be conducted.​​
Eastern Narrowmouth Frog
Non-native amphibians have notably thrived in numerous countries due to such trade practices. Take, for instance, the intentional introduction of the Cane Toad (Rhinella marina) to Barbados, Jamaica, Grenada in the 1800s, and Puerto Rico in the early 1900s.
Cane Toad
The Cane Toad is a large amphibian native to Central and South America. Females can grow up to 10 inches in length, while males typically reach about 4 inches. This species breeds year-round under favorable conditions, producing between 8,000 and 30,000 eggs per clutch. Eggs hatch within 1–2 days, and all life stages ( i.e. eggs, tadpoles, juveniles, and adults) are toxic.
Cane Toads were first recorded in The Bahamas in 2006 at Treasure Cay, Abaco. An outbreak followed in New Providence, beginning in the Lyford Cay area in 2013 and expanding in 2020.
Cane Toads
The species is now established in western New Providence and Abaco, with its range gradually expanding eastward on New Providence. As an opportunistic feeder, the Cane Toad consumes arthropods, small vertebrates, and pet food. Its generalist diet increases interactions with pets and native wildlife, often with fatal consequences.
Amphibians possess highly specialized skin morphology, physiology, and biochemistry, enabling them to thrive in diverse environments. The skin of toads contains mucus, granular, and serous glands. Mucus glands help maintain hydration and secrete antimicrobial substances, while granular glands serve a defensive function, producing a variety of bioactive compounds, including steroids, alkaloids, proteins, and peptides. Among these is bufotoxin.
Cane Toad secreting bufotoxin
Bufotoxin, a bufadienolide steroid, is synthesized by bacteria residing in the parotoid glands and can also be derived from the toad's diet. This toxin belongs to the cardiotonic glycoside class, which inhibits the sodium-potassium pump in cells, leading to calcium ion accumulation and potassium depletion. These disruptions result in cardiac arrhythmias, central nervous system stimulation, seizures, and, if untreated, death.
Pets, particularly dogs, are highly susceptible to Cane Toad toxicity. Symptoms of poisoning include excessive salivation, vomiting, hyperactivity, and, in severe cases, prolonged seizures and eventual death.
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resources
Abarca, J.G., Zuniga, I., Ortiz-Morales, G., Lugo, A., Viquez-Cervilla, M., Rodriguez-Hernandez, N., Vázquez-Sánchez, F., Murillo-Cruz, C., Torres-Rivera, E.A., Pinto-Tomás, A.A. and Godoy-Vitorino, F., 2018. Characterization of the skin microbiota of the cane toad Rhinella cf. marina in Puerto Rico and Costa Rica. Frontiers in Microbiology, 8, p.2624.
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Beard, K.H., Johnson, S.A. and Shiels, A.B., 2017. Frogs (Coqui frogs, greenhouse frogs, Cuban tree frogs, and cane toads). In Ecology and management of terrestrial vertebrate invasive species in the United States (pp. 163-192). CRC Press.
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Johnson, S. and Gibson, D., 2018. South American Cane Toad (Rhinella marina) found on Great Guana Cay, Abaco, The Bahamas. Reptiles & Amphibians, 25(2), pp.160-161.
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Johnson, S. and Yates, S.S., 2020. First records of the North American Green Treefrog (Hyla cinerea) on New Providence, The Bahamas. Reptiles & Amphibians, 26(3), pp.257-258.
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Wilson, B.S., Koenig, S.E., van Veen, R., Miersma, E. and Craig Rudolph, D., 2011. Cane toads a threat to West Indian wildlife: mortality of Jamaican boas attributable to toad ingestion. Biological Invasions, 13, pp.55-60.